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Introduction
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Attention
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Mathematics
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Reading
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Writing
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Resources
From the early formation of letters to crafting an essay, writing involves
perhaps more subskills than any other academic task. To write well requires
combining multiple physical and mental processes in one concerted effort to
communicate information and ideas. For instance, we must be able to move a pen,
or press a key, precisely and fluidly to produce letters, remember rules of
grammar and syntax, place our thoughts in an order that makes sense, and think
ahead to what we want to write next.
This combination of tasks makes writing the highest form and most complex use
of language. As children progress through school, they are asked to do more
with this skill than with any other except reading. Writing requirements
increase across the curriculum - from homework assignments and classwork to
journals, note taking, quizzes, tests, and papers. Even standardized tests are
moving toward fewer multiple-choice questions and more answers in the form of
short paragraphs and essays.
It is probably no accident that many adults choose jobs that
limit the amount of writing they have to do. Children, on the other hand, have
no such luxury. They write nearly every day they are in school, from first
grade on. The accuracy, speed, and sophistication with which they
write significantly impacts what they ultimately achieve academically. Because
writing is so integral to a child's success or failure in school, identifying
writing problems early is essential.
Learning to write, like learning to read or to play a musical instrument, is
generally a sequential process. Children progress as writers from one phase to
the next, with one set of skills building on the skills acquired earlier.
Writing, however, combines many skills and relies on development in many areas
not specific to writing. A child's vocabulary and graphomotor control, for
example, must improve in order for her writing to progress normally.
In his book
Developmental Variation and Learning Disorders, Dr. Mel Levine
describes six stages of writing development. Below is a list of those stages
and some skills that characterize them.
(preschool to first
grade)
In this phase children:
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pretend to write
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become aware that letters can be arranged to form words
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begin to organize letters and shapes in a line
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begin to print letters and numbers
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have relatively crude motor skills
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(first and
second grades)
In this phase children:
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become adept at printing letters
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are preoccupied with the visual appearance of their writing
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become self-conscious if their penmanship is less attractive than their
classmates'
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become better at sequential ordering of letters and numbers
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use invented spellings of words liberally
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(late
second to fourth grade)
In this phase children:
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gradually incorporate standards of capitalization, punctuation, syntax, and
grammar
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seldom plan what they are going to write before they write it
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use writing to relate experiences rather than to solve problems or develop
ideas
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begin writing in cursive
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begin revising their work
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(fourth to seventh
grade)
In this phase children:
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must apply rules of grammar, spelling, and punctuation automatically
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begin to regularly review their own work
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begin to write at a level equivalent to their own speech
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learn to write in stages by incorporating outlines and multiple drafts
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begin to assess the effectiveness of their own writing
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(seventh to ninth
grade)
In this phase children:
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become increasingly adept at using writing to express a viewpoint
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begin to use writing for thinking, problem solving, and remembering
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learn to synthesize ideas from a variety of sources
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begin to write at a level that exceeds their own speech
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use transitions like "finally" and "for example" extensively
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(ninth
grade and beyond)
In this phase children:
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learn to use writing styles appropriate to their subjects
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become more creative with their writing
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learn to use sentences of varying length and complexity
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write with increasingly sophisticated vocabulary
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develop individual writing styles
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Writing skills develop hand in hand with neurodevelopmental functions. Five key
functions - graphomotor, attention, language,
memory, and higher-order thinking - are
outlined below.
Graphomotor function refers to the ability to use muscles in the fingers and
hands to form letters easily and legibly and to maintain a comfortable grip on
a writing instrument. This function plays an important role in maneuvering a
pen or pencil and allowing the fingers to keep pace with the flow of ideas.
Attention plays an important role in all stages of writing. This task often
demands considerable mental energy and focus over long periods of time. Writers
must not only preview what they want to convey as they put their ideas on paper
but also continually self-monitor to stay on track.
Language is an essential ingredient of writing. The ability to recognize letter
sounds, comprehend words and their meanings, understand word order and grammar
to construct sentences, and describe or explain ideas all contribute to a
child's ability to write clearly.
Memory ability has a significant impact on writing. The rate at which children
generate ideas must coincide with their retrieval of necessary vocabulary,
spelling, and prior knowledge. When organizing essays, writers must be able to
think about a topic, draw upon facts and concepts, and sequence ideas and facts
in the right order.
In the upper grades, writing relies on higher-order thinking functions.
Assignments often require students to generate original and creative ideas
while integrating spelling, grammar, and punctuation rules. By early
adolescence, many writing assignments demand critical thinking skills and
conceptual ability such as evaluating opposing arguments and drawing
conclusions.
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